The financial and economic system of Georgia

Since the 1990s, Georgia as practically all of the post-communist states started its ain way of economic reforms. Unlike the other states, nevertheless, the procedure turned particularly hard for Georgia because of economic – and more significantly – non economic factors such as 20 old ages of loyal and civil wars, an utmost rise in offense nation-wide, energy and conveyance encirclements and a revolution. It was constructing both an independent economic system and an independent province at the same clip. Through this background, it is natural that the chance of right execution of economic reforms was rather low, particularly when none of the states in the universe had the relevant experience. Previously, the Constitution of Georgia stated that the state was constructing a â€Å" societal market economic system † , but since 2003, Georgia ‘s economic reforms have become significantly â€Å" aggressive † and today the economic reforms are based upon broad and libertarian political orientations. Georgia achieved high rates of economic growing during last old ages although the Russian-Georgian war – and particularly, the planetary fiscal crisis – has caused a crisp diminution in the growing rates whilst the job of economic stabilisation and farther growing still persists.3.1. The Course of Economic Reforms of GeorgiaFrom Independence to the Rose Revolution After declaring its independency Georgia has launched the building of its province ; Georgian governments officially acknowledged that the execution of economic reforms would get down. Unfortunately nevertheless, neither the professional experience, nor the local environment provided the chance for implementing the economic reforms. The first old ages of economic reforms had tragic effects for Georgia. The putsch of 1991-92 together with economic and political encirclements, a deficiency of relevant professional staff, high corruptness, a serious condemnable state of affairs and populist motions badly hampered the execution of a consistent and stable policy of economic reforms. Georgia at the same time started fiscal stabilisation, monetary value liberalisation and the decrease of budget shortage, the execution of a rigorous recognition policy every bit good as an debut of a moderate revenue enhancement system and the decrease of province outgos. However, several of import factors were non taken into consideration. Government in general, did n't hold existent macroeconomic tools and its ain pecuniary system or existent levers to implement a tax-budgetary policy ; and alternatively of set uping such tools it started to implement new political relations without any due readying. Because of the above mentioned grounds together with belligerencies, conveyance, economic and energy encirclements, it had no important consequence in the state ‘s development. And since Georgia had no currency of its ain and, severally, no emitter, it would hold failed to take steps necessary for reforms. Neither its single experience nor its fiscal province enabled Georgia to transport out these procedures independently, therefore it applied to international fiscal organisations for aid ; in peculiar, to the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and the World Bank ( WB ) , which mostly contributed to state ‘s policy formation. As a consequence, the province started to believe over a limitation of the monopolizer activities, although merely managed to set the anti-monopolist statute law into force several old ages subsequently. Despite the aid of international organisations, Georgia have failed to implement an effectual pecuniary policy as despite the â€Å" Cold War † with Russia during that period ( which in 2008 exploded into existent belligerencies every bit good as suspending diplomatic and other dealingss between these two states ) , it was still the dominant power for the economic system. Money supply in Georgia depended on Russia ‘s cardinal bank and, hence, one of the cardinal levers of the state ‘s economic development remained in its custodies ( Papava, 1996 ) . Although the Georgian Government was occupied with faulting Russia for its ain jobs – and such acquisitions were frequently really just – it did non anticipate that it would be unable to have currency notes from Moscow. And when eventually Russian governments suspended money supplies to Georgia in April 1993, the Georgian governments were forced to set the voucher of the National Bank of Georgia, as a impe rmanent currency note into circulation. The voucher was put into circulation as a representative of Russian ruble and was declared as the lone legal payment instrument, after Russia withdraw the disintegrated Soviet Union ‘s rouble from circulation in July-August 1993. Coupon shortly failed to execute its pecuniary maps, as its uncontrolled recognition emanation caused hyperinflation processes. The graduated tables of utilizing the Russian ruble were increasing whilst the USD besides started to increase in Georgia under conditions of a rapid lessening in the buying power of the rouble. In fact, the voucher was merely suited for paying subway menus and purchasing rationed staff of life. In 1994 a new phase of economic reforms was followed by regenerating the cooperation with international fiscal organisations together with acceptance of the anti-crisis plan. A certain success was achieved at the really get downing. The international fiscal organisations actively began to help the Georgian governments in the successful execution of the post-communist transmutation ( Papava, 2002 ) . From spring 1994, uncontrolled recognition emanation was ruled out and in fall 1994, the National Bank of Georgia abolished the limitations on taking hard currency from Bankss. As a consequence, hard currency and non hard currency money were drawn much closer. In September 1994, the monetary values on gas and electricity increased up to an international degree, while the monetary value of staff of life increased by 285 times. The metro menu besides increased significantly. The wages of public functionaries and pensions besides increased although the rate of their growing meaningly dragged behind the growing rates. These developments were followed by a important strengthening of the Georgian voucher rate. If before the addition in the monetary value of bread one dollar was equal to 5.3 million vouchers, after the addition one dollar equaled 2.4 million vouchers. This procedure continued. By the terminal of 1994, the monetary value of staff of life increased by 40 per centum which was the consequence of more stabilising the voucher rate, when one dollar was equal to 1.3 million vouchers and with this rate maintained until the terminal of its being. The procedure of the simplification of the bing licensing mechanism began from January 1995, when the quota system was abolished whilst licensing was maintained merely on little scope of merchandises. This promoted the constitution of a broad trade policy and the restriction of a corrupted environment. Together with this, it laid for the constitution of existent market dealingss in which come ining or go forthing the markets no longer depended upon any functionary. The procedure of â€Å" vaucherisation † was launched in Georgia in 1995. This can be considered as a traditional measure in the denationalization procedure which has been carried out in many post-communist states. This procedure played a farther negative function in respects to economic resurgence. Fabrication and production was non transferred to those who would be able to present and supply for the betterment of technological procedures in industry and stimulate production. Alternatively, workss and mills were given to those who were non able to pull investings for seting them into operation. Important stairss have taken towards the formation of independent economic system in Georgia in 1995. A legal model relevant to market economic rules was created, a two-tier banking system, revenue enhancement and imposts services were established ; fiscal stabilisation was achieved and eventually the national currency was introduced ; order and subject were restored, the procedure of â€Å" little denationalization † was fundamentally completed and monetary values, trade and foreign economic dealingss were liberalized. These led to the creative activity of a concern environment – finally necessary for advancing the development of entrepreneurship in Georgia – which in bend, provided farther accelerated development of the state ‘s economic system. The successful execution of pecuniary and financial reforms started with presenting Georgian national currency – the lari – in September 1995. The lari was introduced with a fixed exchange rate of 1 lari equal to 1 million vouchers, as 1 USD equal to 1.3 lari. The pecuniary reform did non reiterate the same errors as in the period of vouchers. No arrogation step was used during the reform which promoted assurance edifice amongst the people the lari gained its foothold really quickly. A month after presenting the national currency, the lari ‘s rate increased at the Tbilisi Interbank Currency Exchange from 1.3 to 1.25 against the USD. As a consequence of a flexible policy, Georgia managed to get the better of the multi-rate pattern and completed currency rate fusion. Unfortunately, 1998 was marked with certain holds in the procedure of the execution of economic reforms which reduced economic growing rates and resulted in the start of a period of stagnancy for the Georgian economic system. However, the 2003 Rose Revolution brought an terminal to this period with economic procedures, including reforms, get downing to develop really rapidly. Economic Reforms after the Rose Revolution From the beginning of 2004 Georgia had been set uping the institutional base for market economic system ordinance which was similar to those in other European provinces. Georgia has experienced extremist economic reforms which were often expressed by the abolishing of ordinance mechanisms by the province. Several province bureaus were abolished in 2004, including the Road Fund, The Ministry of Communication, Transport and Post ; the Ministry of Urbanization and Construction ; the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Foreign Economic Relations ; the Ministry of State Property Management ; the Service for Food Expertise and Monitoring ; the Service for Plant Protection, Livestock Pedigree Department of Georgia ; Precious Stones and Metals Department ; the State employment Service, Food Safety Inspection ; Phyto-Sanitary Control and the Transport Regulatory Commission, amongst others. Simultaneously, building processs were besides significantly simplified. The list of those activities which re quired licensing in Georgia besides decreased significantly from 900 activities to merely 114. Size and weight control, licence and license on veterinary activity every bit good as licence on production and trade in pesticides were abolished. An analysis of the structural alterations which were carried out in Georgia during last seven old ages shows that the end of these alterations has been full economic deregulating. A expression through the history of the development of independent Georgia ‘s economic establishments shows that National Bank of Georgia has been one of the most successful regulative establishments. The fact, that Georgia has a national currency, which maintains its places, and that the Georgian banking system has managed to get the better of a great trade of troubles is one of the virtues of the National Bank. It is highly of import to further open up the state ‘s economic policy so that investors are willing to put in Georgia. Those enterprises, which were unveiled by the President of Georgia last October, are efforts to develop events in this way.Analysis of Macroeconomic IndexsBefore the decomposition of the Soviet Union, Georgia had one of the highest criterions of life. Later, in 1990, the economic state of affairs significantly worsened. Georgian economic system had a 21.9 per centum diminution in 1991as compared to 1990. The procedure of decomposition of the Soviet Union continued in 1992, accompanied by the most serious socio-economic, condemnable internal political and other negative developments in Georgia. As a consequence the existent GDP farther decreased by 44.9 per centum as compared to 1991 and amounted to 43.47 per centum as compared to 1990. It should besides be noted that the procedure of economic diminution became irreversible from 1989. The state of affairs did n on alteration in 1993 when Georgia passed through an highly hard period of armed struggle in Abkhazia, a conveyance encirclement, the uncontrolled emanation of vouchers, hyperinflation and a farther diminution of GDP by 29.3 per centum. Finally, the GDP amounted to merely 30.73 per centum as compared to 1990. In 1990, the degree of employment reached 100 per centum in Georgia. In 1991, the official figure of unemployed was 3,500, it increased 32 times and amounted 113,000 individuals in 1992 and rose farther by 60 per centum and amounted to 180,000 individuals in 1993. Harmonizing to the current functionary informations, there are 330,000 unemployed individuals in Georgia. Harmonizing to the same official statistical informations, the rising prices rate exceeded 7,840 % in 1994, while after a 3.5 fold lessening in GDP during 1989-1993 it decreased by 10.4 per centum once more and equaled to a backward diminution by 25-30 old ages. In 1995, farther production outgo was stopped and GDP was achieved to increase by 2.6 per centum. And what is more of import, from 7,841 per centum rising prices, as it was in 1994, in 1995 it amounted 157.4 per centum merely. Particularly high rates of development is socio-economic domain was achieved in 1996-1997, when GDP increased about by 24 per centum. More convincing consequences were achieved during 1996-1997 sing rising prices, whose parametric quantities significantly determine the cardinal consequences of a state ‘s economic development. In peculiar, the rate of rising prices was 13.5 per centum in 1996 and 7.3 per centum in 1997 which was 1.1 per centum and 0.6 per centum per month, severally. All of these had a positive consequence upon set uping a favourable economic environment for concern development.Table 1. Key Macroeconomic Parameters19961997199819992000200120022003GDP at Market Prices ( million GEL )3 868,54 554,95 022,15 668,76 043,16 674,07 456,08 564,1GDP per capita ( GEL )827,6999,21 114,81 268,21 362,51 516,31 705,61 972,1GDP per capita ( USD )655,6770,2800,7629,6689,7731,8777,3919,0GDP million USD3 064,63 510,73 606,92 814,13 059,13 221,03 397,83 990,8Exchange rate ( GEL USD )1,26231,29741,39242,01441,97552,07202,19442,1459Economic Growth110,5103,1102,9101,8104,8105,5111,1GDP deflator 106,5 106,9 109,6 104,6 105,3 106,0 103,3200420052006200720082009GDP at Market Prices ( million GEL )9 824,311 620,913 789,916 993,819 074,917 948,6GDP per capita ( GEL )2 276,72 689,13 133,13 866,94 352,94 092,8GDP per capita ( USD )1 187,61 483,51 763,52 314,62 921,12 450,1GDP million USD5 124,76 411,07 761,710 171,912 800,510 744,7Exchange rate ( GEL USD )1,91701,81271,77671,67071,49021,6705Economic Growth105,9109,6109,4112,3102,396,1GDP deflator 108,1 107,9 108,5 109,7 109,7 98,0 State Debt of Georgia ( million GEL ) 4,155.5 3,509.0 2,954.2 3,015.3 4,407.4 5,927.4 Beginning: National Statistics Office of Georgia In 1998-2002, the rates of economic growing decreased to an mean 2 per centum per twelvemonth. However, despite the most hard state of affairs, in 2003, the economic growing rate exceeded 10 per centum. In the undermentioned old ages, if we do non see the period 2008-2009, the economic growing rates were highly high. As a consequence of the Russian aggression in August 2008, the state ‘s economic system still increased by 1.9 per centum, but the undermentioned twelvemonth – 2009 was distinguished by the economic lessening of 3.9 per centum for the first clip since 1995. It should be noted that province and private givers pledged 4.5 billion USD by which significantly reduced the extent of the economic recession.4Chart 1. Dynamicss of Key Macroeconomic ParametersBeginning: National Statistics Office of Georgia Monetary values were more or less stable from 1995. As for the exchange rate, if before 1995 the voucher exchange rate was equal to 1 USD against 5.3 million vouchers, the lari has been characterized with a important stableness. The inclination of the addition in its rate was seen in 2004, although the exchange rate started to fall once more from 2007.Table 2. Exchange RatessUSD/GELEUR/GELRUB/GELEnd of period Middle of period End of period Middle of period End of period Middle of period20012,0600 2,0720 1,8188 1,8573 0,0683 0,071020022,0900 2,1944 2,1763 2,0735 0,0658 0,070020032,0750 2,1459 2,5920 2,4237 0,0704 0,070020041,8250 1,9170 2,4850 2,3813 0,0658 0,066520051,7925 1,8127 2,1245 2,2600 0,0623 0,064120061,7150 1,7767 2,2545 2,2290 0,0651 0,065420071,5916 1,6707 2,3315 2,2859 0,0649 0,065320081,6670 1,4902 2,3648 2,1886 0,0567 0,060120091,6858 1,6705 2,4195 2,3307 0,0557 0,0529 Beginning: National Statistics Office of Georgia Despite theGrowth and External PerformanceEconomic recovery is acquiring stronger, with existent GDP growing of 6.6 per centum in the first half of 2010. This follows a contraction of 3.9 per centum in 2009 because of the dazes of the August 2008 struggle and the planetary economic crisis. Real economic activity is deriving strength in 2010, with growing in exports, worker remittals, existent estate minutess, building licenses and vehicle enrollments. Compared with the last twelvemonth, VAT turnover increased by 7 per centum and amounted 27 per centum. During the first half of 2010 exports were up to 40 per centum while imports amounted merely 12 per centum. At the same period private investings have benefited from a pickup in bank landing, while FDI influxs are still below pre crisis degrees, but betterments are expected. The economic system is predicted to turn by 4-5 per centum during 2011-2013, where growing is expected to come from higher exports and private investing supported by a pickup in bank loaning. Exports will be chiefly with metal merchandises, vinos, fruits and nuts, besides repaired and re-exported autos and expected to play a cardinal function in its recovery – from 29.8 per centum of GDP in 2009 to 38 per centum during 2011-2013 ; As for the services side conveyance and touristry will besides play a important function ( World Bank, 2010 ) .4. Finance and the Role of BankingIn Georgia fiscal system is chiefly based on the banking sector, which is reflected with the mobilisation of the fundss and their forma tion into investing beginnings by agencies of the banking establishments. Harmonizing to this, banking system plays an of import function in increasing the gait of Georgian economic system. The Bankss operate in conformity with modern market theoretical account in every regard. An active engagement of the Georgian Bankss helps the little and average sized concern development in the state. Georgia have done lost of success in developing its fiscal sector during last old ages after its independency, nevertheless external factors have hampered states development to some extent late, which reflected on Georgia ‘s economic system and accordingly on its fiscal sector. Nowadays, positive alterations are being implemented which gives us the possibility to assume, that the fiscal system will farther develop and advance county ‘s economic development.Development of the Financial System in GeorgiaFor the last 10 old ages, the fiscal system of Georgia has experienced important alterations. After declaring its independency, really from zero, began creative activity of fiscal substructure. The National Bank of Georgia ( NBG ) has been created ; the national currency – Georgian Lari ( GEL ) has been issued ; the commercial Bankss have been certified ( At the same clip the figure of Bankss was decreased 10 times ) . Except banking system, the fiscal system includes other fiscal establishments. In 2010 in Georgia 19 Commercial Bankss operated, from which 16 are runing with the foreign capital engagement. As for non-banking depositary establishments, there are 47 microfinance organisations ( MFO ) , 18 recognition brotherhoods ; 1,334 exchange agency ; 24 money remittal service suppliers ; 16 insurance companies ; 6 pension financess and 1 stock exchange. Among these fiscal establishments most profitable and of import for fiscal sector is the banking system.Banking in GeorgiaIn order to make the conditions for the right operation of the banking sector NBG cares about the execution of demands set by the Euro directives and Basel rules. Besides, for the straight-forward development of the banking sector, the changeless betterment of the different hazards administration mechanisms by the market participants – commercial Bankss is besides indispensable. As a whole, the present state of affairs provides maximal chances for implementing new ba nking merchandises. Banking system, sing its gait of development and inclinations, could be regarded as dynamically developing system. Compared to other sections of fiscal sector of Georgian economic system, the banking system is instead more developed. Nowadays, recognition is allocated on market footings, and the authorities does non have commercial Banks. Hence, the competition in banking domain is strong plenty. Banks try to offer as big spectrum of services as possible. The fiscal system is get downing to mend. Refer about systematic hazard has been diminished. And overall loaning conditions have started to better. We have already seen a significant sum of accommodation in our fiscal system. Leverage has declined. Banks are funding themselves more cautiously. These are necessary alterations, and there is more reconstituting in front for the fiscal sector as a whole. But a significant portion of the accommodation procedure is now behind us. Fiscal establishments constitute an of import portion of Georgian economic system.AbbreviationsNBG the National Bank of Georgia GEL Georgian Lari MFO Microfinance Organizations VAT Value Added Tax FDI Foreign Direct Investment IMF International Monetary Fund WB World Bank

Steps To Reduce Greenhouse Gases Environmental Sciences Essay

1. Fossil fuels have been the primary beginning of energy fuelling the planetary demands of power since long. Dependence on them chiefly stems from the fact that they are easy available, inexpensive and economical in transit every bit good as extraction. Coal, Oil, Natural Gas have all been used since long and even been exported/imported between states keeping a balanced demand and supply. So much so that the usage of fossil fuels has been in trend for such long times that most of our engineering and equipment using them as fuels are designed consequently. The biggest drawback of our dependance on fossil fuels is the release of CO2 into the ambiance thereby taking to planetary heating as besides the fact that it is a non-renewable beginning and will sooner or subsequently exhaust taking to a nothingness. Effectss of Fossil Fuel on Environment Renewable Energy Resources 3. In contrary to fossil fuels, renewable energies are reversible in nature and can invariably be replenished without the fright of being drained out of our environment. Wind, Solar, Hydro & A ; such like signifiers of renewable energy will maintain on supplying electricity without any idea of them being blown off from our planet. Such energies which can travel on to maintain bring forthing electricity without cut downing beginning energy itself are renewable energy. Wind Energy 4. Wind engineering has become really dependable, runing with handinesss of more than 98 % and holding a design life of 20 old ages or more. Furthermore, as the costs of air current turbines have steadily declined, proficient dependability has increased. The factors that presently limit wind energy ‘s market incursion include variableness, public credence and grid dependability. However, recent developments in electricity market reform, which promote better grid integrating and improved direction of natural rhythms of renewables, decrease the technological barriers that have constrained market incursion. In the country of air current energy, continued R & A ; D is indispensable to supply the necessary decreases in cost and uncertainness to gain the awaited degree of deployment. Other R & A ; D precedences include increasing the value of calculating power public presentation, cut downing uncertainnesss related to technology unity, betterment and proof of criterions, cut downing the cost of storage techniques, enabling large-scale usage, and understating environmental impacts. Further enlargement of air current power will advance important decreases in nursery gases. With farther deployment support, wind power may go by and large competitory with conventional engineerings by 2015-20 and off-shore air current will probably go competitory to a grade after that. Solar 5. Solar energy is already being widely used in certain states, whether it be for hot H2O production, warming, illuming and other power demands. The photovoltaic ( PV ) market has grown extensively since 1992. R & A ; D attempts, together with market deployment policies, have efficaciously produced impressive cost decreases nevertheless market deployment is concentrated with Japan, Germany and the United States accounting for over 85 % of entire installed capacity. However, PV still has a batch of range for R & A ; D with focal point on bettering the balance-of-system constituents for both grid connected and stand-alone applications. Even with these supports, PV is non expected to be by and large competitory until after 2020 – although it will go on to vie good in a turning scope of market niches in which the cost of deployment supports is moderate. Hydro 6. One of the biggest advantages of a hydroelectric composite is that the undertaking produces no direct waste, and has a well lower end product degree of the nursery gas, C dioxide ( CO2 ) , than fossil fuel powered energy workss. Worldwide, an installed capacity of 777 GWe supplied 2998 TWh of hydroelectricity in 2006 which was about 20 % of the universe ‘s electricity, and accounted for about 88 % of electricity from renewable beginnings. It is an highly flexible engineering from the position of power grid operation supplying one of the lowest cost options in today ‘s energy market, chiefly because most workss were built many old ages ago and their installation costs have been to the full amortised. Once the high up-front capital costs are written off, workss can supply power at even lower cost degrees, as such systems normally operate without major replacing costs for 50 old ages or more. The ground why globally merely approximately 5 % of the hydropower potency have been exploited through little graduated table sites is due to entree to transmittal systems, environmental and societal concerns. Biomass 7. Biomass stuffs have been used since millenary for run intoing countless human needs including energy with its chief beginnings being trees, harvests and carnal waste. Until the center of 19th century, biomass dominated the planetary energy supply with 70 % part. Soon, the biomass beginnings contribute 14 % of planetary energy and 38 % of energy in developing states. Globally, the energy content of biomass residues in agribusiness based industries yearly is estimated at 56 exajoules, about a one-fourth of planetary primary energy usage of 230 exajoules. Biomass burning for heat and power is a to the full mature engineering offering both an economic fuel option and a ready disposal mechanism of municipal, agricultural and industrial organic wastes. 8. However, the industry has remained comparatively dead over the last decennary, even though demand for biomass ( largely wood ) continues to turn in many developing states. One of the jobs of biomass is that stuff straight combusted in cook ranges produces pollutants, taking to terrible wellness and environmental effects, although improved cook range programmes are relieving some of these effects. A 2nd issue is that firing biomass emits CO2, even though biomass burning is by and large considered to be â€Å" carbon-neutral † because C is absorbed by works stuff during its growing, therefore making a C rhythm. First-generation biomass engineerings can be economically competitory, but may still necessitate deployment support to get the better of public credence and small-scale issues. Biofuels 9. Biofuels are a broad scope of fuels which are in some manner derived from biomass and screens solid biomass, liquid fuels and assorted biogases. They are deriving increased public and scientific attending, driven by factors such as oil monetary value spikes, the demand for increased energy security, and concern over nursery gas emanations from fossil fuels. Bioethanol is an intoxicant made by fermenting the sugar constituents of works stuffs and is made largely from sugar and amylum harvests. Biofuels provided 1.8 % of the universe ‘s conveyance fuel in 2008 while investing into its production capacity exceeded $ 4 billion worldwide in 2007 and is growing.More modern signifiers of bio energy include biomass-based power and heat coevals, co-firing, bio fuels for conveyance and short rotary motion harvests for energy feedstock. These are more advanced and each has its ain alone benefits. 10. Biomass is attractive for usage either as a stand-alone fuel or in fuel blends, such as co-firing wood with coal, or blending ethyl alcohol or biodiesel with conventional petroleum-based fuels. Anaerobic digestion has strong potency in states with ample resources. Electricity generated from biomass is based on steam turbine engineering. Many parts of the universe still have big untapped supplies of biomass residues, which could be converted into competitively priced electricity utilizing steam turbine power workss. Co-firing is a low-priced and low-risk manner of adding biomass capacity. Co-firing systems that use low-priced biomass supply can hold payback periods every bit abruptly as two old ages. 11. In add-on, biomass can replace up to 15 % of the entire energy input in a power works, frequently with few alterations other than the burner and feed consumption systems. Co-firing is of peculiar involvement in developing states, because it improves the economic and ecological quality of many older, coal fired power workss. Bio fuels from agricultural biomass production are another well-developed transition engineering. Biomass grown every bit dedicated energy harvests can supply new economic chances for husbandmans and forest proprietors. The primary barriers to increased usage of biomass on a larger graduated table are the cost of systems required for dedicated feedstock production, harvest home, and transit, every bit good as the fuel transition engineerings. With farther R & A ; D and deployment support in 2020-30, these engineerings could accomplish commercialization. Geothermal 12. Geothermal energy is a clean and sustainable energy that comes from resources runing from shallow land to hot H2O and hot stone found a few stat mis beneath the Earth ‘s surface, and down even deeper to the highly high temperatures of molten stone called magma. Geothermal heat pumps can tap into this resource to heat and cool edifices. These power workss are capable of runing 24Ãâ€"7 and globally there is a possible for bring forthing about 85 GW of power over the following 30 old ages. However, the restriction to tapping this resource is the handiness which is limited to merely few countries of the universe, the largest being the United States, Central America, Indonesia, East Africa and the Philippines. Challenges to spread outing geothermic energy include really long undertaking development times, and the hazard and cost of explorative boring. Action Plan to Reduce Dependence on Fossil Fuel 13. Solar Energy. This beginning is seen to hold the highest potency for the hereafter amongst assorted renewable energy beginnings. Some steps for working this rich resource are: – ( a ) Make solar warmers compulsory, through edifice byelaws and incorporation in the National Building Code. ( B ) Ensure the debut of effectual mechanisms for enfranchisement and evaluation of makers of solar thermal applications ( degree Celsius ) Facilitate measuring and publicity of these single devices through local bureaus and power public-service corporations. ( vitamin D ) Support the upgrading of engineerings and fabrication capacities through soft loans, to accomplish higher efficiencies and farther cost decrease. ( vitamin E ) Make installing of solar panels on the roofs of new edifices compulsory to obtain portion of the power demands through it. ( degree Fahrenheit ) Set up autochthonal fabrication capacity. ( g ) Promote off-grid applications so that power coevals is at the ingestion point itself and therefore does away with land and environment related concerns. 14. Wind. Although all sectors of renewable energy are being developed, weave power programme has been the fastest growth. The undermentioned enterprises will help in to the full working the air current potency: – ( a ) Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) supply a farther inducement to weave energy development. ( B ) A consistent national renewable energy policy to to the full recognize the air current energy potency. ( degree Celsius ) Though Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) and FiT ( Feed in Tariffs ) can co-exist in theory, they need to be good managed to avoid inefficiencies. ( vitamin D ) Set up air current farms at off shore locations and along the seashore line. ( vitamin E ) Promote R & A ; D in this field with investings from developed states to help companies like Suzlon who are already planetary leaders. 15. Hydroelectricity. Harnessing H2O as a resource to bring forth power has been employed globally and a reasonably high grade of success has been achieved, nevertheless the undermentioned enterprises will impart farther impulse to the attempts: – ( a ) Undertake little micro hydel undertakings for rural electrification tapping into minor H2O resources at distant topographic points. ( B ) Streamline clearance processs, to include understating the clip rhythm for countenances of undertakings with particular accent on hastening environmental clearances, as besides on rehabilitation and relocation issues. ( vitamin D ) Though the populace sector has played a major and about sole function in developing hydropower in private owned independent power manufacturer ( IPP ) manner is still to catch on. The chief intent should be to bring forth assurance in prospective entrepreneurs/developers and offer footings and conditions, which will be attractive and cover undue hazards, without endangering consumer involvements. 16. However, on the whole to make maximal possible and hike the necessary investing in renewable energy, it is indispensable to present clear, stable and long-run support policies, carefully designed to guarantee that they operate in harmoniousness with bing apparatus.

Nutrigenomics and Nutrigenetics

There has been a long-standing debate whether the fate or characteristics of a particular organism or human being is dependent on the environment or its genetic makeup although scientific data collected in recent years point to the interaction between these two. According to experts in the field, the physical, chemical and behavioral properties of a person can be attributed to the interaction between the blueprint which is genetics and the test site which is the environment. Genetic makeup can be considered a blueprint wherein properties regarding growth and development of an organism is stored and copied while environment can be regarded as the actual dynamism of living and nonliving factors that surround and affect the organism. Currently, there are two controversial areas of interest related to nutrition, health and well being, the nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics. These two fields involve the study of implications between nutrition, metabolism and genetic mechanisms. Proponents of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics believe that nutrition plays a vital role in the metabolic processes inside the body and that there are specific food and fluids that are appropriate for a particular genetic makeup. This paper aims to differentiate between nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics and their role in the current nutrition research. The goals, applications and implications will be likewise enumerated. In addition current researches that delve into this area will be included to better understand the future and impact of this controversial science. Goals and Implications of Nutrigenomics and Nutrigenetics According to Mariman (2007) one of the primary goals of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics is to pinpoint nutrient-dependent health characteristics and nutrition-dependent diseases. This revolves on the fact that certain genetic disorders are triggered by particular food or be relieved by certain supplements. These areas on important nutrient-dependent genetic conditions are the ones gaining foremost attention but there are other research fields that are equally important and can be considered part of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics. An example is the search for nutritional strategies to prevent or manage overweight or obesity. The purpose is to find food types that can easily induce satiety to affected persons while providing the needed nutrients at the same time. Another example is studying mechanisms involving food fermentation by primitive organisms in the digestive tract and in an artificial condition. Such information will be enlightening regarding better and efficient digestion. The other area connected to nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics concerns food composition and performance of quality assessment by studying the interconnectivity of the proteomic and metabolic pathways that will be explained next (Burton & Stewart, 2004; Mariman, 2007). Undoubtedly, there will be a large impact on the food industry, genetics and disease research all around the world when the direct and exact mechanisms and applications of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics are laid down through scientific and intensive research (Burton & Stewart, 2004). Effects of Nutrient on the Genome, Proteome and Metabolome Nutrition is believed to be influencing the genetic and metabolic makeup of an organism in three basic levels. These are on the level of the genome, proteome and metabolome. Genome is the overall genetic blueprint of an organism. It includes all the genes and other regions of the nucleotide sequences in all the chromosomes that are transferred from the parent to the offspring. According to studies concerning nutrient and genomics, certain genes are either turned on or off by the presence, abundance or absence of a particular nutrient. Severe imbalance in nutrition adversely affects an individual due to the expression of genes that makes that individual susceptible to chronic diseases (Paturel, 2006). According to Paturel (2006), antioxidants are an example of molecular food components that can extensively affect the genome and gene expression of an individual. Certain diseases such as cancer and health conditions such as aging are believed to be associated to the lack of antioxidants in the diet of affected persons. Another very important nutrient that can severely affect the genome is folate. Folate and folic acid, which are forms of vitamin B9, play a very important role in the deoxynucleotide acid (DNA) synthesis, replication and repair. This means that absence of this said nutrient can lead to depletion of genetic material, errors in DNA replication and damage to the genome. This lack of folate in the diet can result to severe healthcare problems such as birth defects and cardiovascular disease among important genetic disorders (Meshkin & Blum, 2007). On the proteome and metabolome level, nutrition also has large impact. An example is the inability to process or digest milk proteins. This condition is attributed to lactose intolerance in persons with disruptions in intestinal enzyme needed to digest dairy products. This condition induces the body to synthesize morphine-like compounds which triggers autism and schizophrenia when absorbed by specific regions of the brain. The goal, therefore, is to design food supplements that would prevent lactose intolerance and consequently prevent autism and schizophrenia (Paturel, 2006). Differences between Nutrigenomics and Nutrigenetics Nutrigenomics is defined as a set of technological research and applications involving the elucidation of the mechanisms wherein the genetic program functioning in cells and tissues of an organism is supposedly influenced by the organism’s diet. Muller and Kersten (2003) defines nutrigenomics as the application in nutrition research of high throughput genomics tools by analyzing dietary signals in cells and tissues towards clarification of the impact of nutrition on homeostasis. Simply put, nutrigenomics is the merging of nutritional environment and cellular or genetic functions (Kaput & Rodriguez, 2004). Nutrigenetics, on the other hand, is the use of genetic variation data correlated with dietary health risks. Nutrigenetics is based on the assumption that there is genetic variation in human populations and that an individual’s response to nutrition is governed by various genes. Thus, nutrigeneticists claim that individuals may react differently on different diets which imply that nutrition-related disorders can be treated and prevent by modifying diet. This includes identifying those genes that are involved, the differences of these genes in every individual and the applications for health and disease in the population setting. The above definitions give a clear view of the differences between nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics. Nutrigenomics looks at the whole response of the genome on particular diet or nutrition. Studies conducted under nutrigenomics use a set of individuals who are largely dissimilar in metabolic responses to particular diet. For example, research related to obesity uses those that are not susceptible to the said condition versus individuals that have obesity or chronic obesity. Using different types of nutritional setup or specific food groups, scientists aim to provide the metabolic pathways that are specific to developing obesity or resistance to such tendency. Another example is diabetes or cardiovascular disease wherein individuals who are found to have high risks on such diseases are examined on their reaction to particular diet or nutrition. Other examples of single gene traits that have large healthcare impacts are those involved in phenylketonuria and galactosemia (Kaput & Rodriquez, 2004). Nutrigenetics, on the other hand, looks on the population response to diet or nutrition. Sequence variations are detection through molecular studies. An example of such molecular tool is the study of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). These changes in the nucleotide sequence of subjects can lend an explanation on the reaction of particular individuals in relation to the reaction of other individuals. Persons with this changes or SNPs may have crucial substation leading to a health care condition. For example, a cytosine-to-thymidine substitution may cause an increase in the levels of homocysteine in the plasma which increases a person’s risk of acquiring venous thromboembolic disease and neural tube defects (Subbiah, 2006). Since the two areas of research differ on the part and extent of patient characteristics, therefore the tools and applications largely vary. Nutrigenomics involve various technological implements to ascertain the expression of target genes. Nutrigenomics uses mRNA profiling, protein profiling, metabolite profiling, gene expression tests and other molecular tools. The goal is to determine the presence of a particular enzyme, protein, by-product or metabolite in the cells, tissues or system in the subjects subjected to nutrients being tested (Mariman, 2007). On the other hand, nutrigenetics requires the use of genetic polymorphism tests such as isozyme or nucleotide sequencing. The aim is to detect changes or polymorphisms in a person that is divergent from that of the population. Of important interest is placed in cases of known conditions arising from nucleotide changes such as the one mentioned above involving cytosine-to-thymidine substation which resulted to neural tube defects (Kaput & Rodriguez, 2004; Subbiah, 2006) Obviously, since the target areas of nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics are very different from each other, the intervention strategies or treatments should also be divergent. Whereas personally-tailored nutrition and supplements should be given to patients in nutrigenomics the nutrients or supplements to be given to nutrigenetics subjects may be less specific. For example, for those suffering from galactosemia and phenylketonuria, appropriate foods are to be given to avoid or prevent the negative effects of these health conditions (Wallace, 2006; Kaput & Rodriguez, 2007). Nutrigenetics, on the other hand, covers a large portion of the population wherein functional foods and supplements may be made available to the market for people who have the risk, as tested by polymorphism detection, of a disease or health condition such as cardiovascular disease or obesity. Supplements that lower cholesterol that adversely affects certain groups may be taken as prescribed by physicians (Meshkin & Blum, 2007; Subbiah 2006). Current Research in Nutrigenomics and Nutrigenetics Novel research on folate nutrigenomics research highlighted the importance of this vitamin in the development of humans such that absence can invariably lead to birth defects. Research by Meshkin & Blum (2007) found high association between folate and cardiovascular disease and birth defects reduction. They were also to able to find the genetic influence on folate. Studies such as this led to the review of current policies regarding one-size-fits-all government approach of folate and folic acid supplementation. Chen et al. (2007) found chromium picolinate to have anti-obesity nutrient traits since it affects body composition and reduces weight in humans. They achieved this by genotyping the dopamine D2 receptor gene using standard polymerase chain reaction techniques. Using placebo and different treatment of chromium picolinate, the authors found the significant therapeutic effect of the said nutritional compound in influencing weight loss and reduction in body fat. Their results established the need for DNA testing for this application. Heuvel (2007) conducted a research regarding the effects of pistachios on cardiovascular disease risk factors. His research included effects of pistachios on lipoproteins and lipids, apolipoproteins, insulin, blood pressure and genetic expression of various genes among other related factors. Results showed that cholesterol reduction diet with pistachios greatly improved the efficiency. In addition, increasing pistachio dose also increased the benefits in decreasing the cardiovascular disease risk on subjects. The said research was achieved by considering the different risk factors in a nutrition genomics experiment. Aside from this study, the author has other proposed experiments including the effects of walnuts on hypercholesterolemia and peanuts on cardiovascular health. Holick (2006) reiterated available and extensive evidence on the importance of vitamin D related to prevention and treatment of rickets, osteoporosis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, many common cancers and hypertension. His paper put importance on sun exposure and vitamin D supplements to avoid vitamin D deficiency and avert succumbing to various diseases which apart from the above, includes also psoriasis, multiple sclerosis and cardiovascular disease among others. Researchers from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) are currently in search for answers regarding celiac disease, a disorder wherein a person cannot tolerate a protein in wheat, rye, barley and oats called gluten. Aside from designing diet that would be beneficial for patients suffering from celiac disease, these researchers are also in the hunt for the responsible chemicals in the destruction of the function of the immune system. They are engineering enzymes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   that can neutralize or destroy immunotoxic peptides produced in affected persons by establishing the environmental and genetic aspects of the disease (NIDDK, 2007). Above advances in the nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics research are indeed fast paced and covers multiple fronts due to the large impact of their results to the food, genetics and healthcare industry. What is very noticeable is the specific focus of each research team on particular areas in individual disease or disorder. Their studies are more focused because the causes already been identified by the involved pathways or gened. This is due to the fact that causes have been pinpointed to the key genes or pathways involved. For example, folate, chromium picolinate and vitamin D in the enumerated researches above have been isolated by workers in these fields. One noticeable pattern, however, is the prominence of nutrigenomics over nutrigenetics. There are more research activities being conducted tackling the effect of nutrition on the genome reaction. More gene expression, metabolic pathways and proteomic analyses are being performed than genetic diversity tests in relation to nutrition. In other words, the approach of nutrition genomics is currently more adapted to personalized diet design since this can be considered a quick fix. However, the trend is not towards the dominant use of nutrigenomics. Instead, there is a need for nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics to be used in combination. This is because nutrigenomics can put solutions on the gene, protein and metabolic level of the disease but those that are suffering from various disorders are not isolated or few. There are large proportions in the population who are affected by diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disease, chronic obesity, diabetes or celiac disease and each patient is unique and groups in every population are also deemed to be unique in their own genetic makeup. Since nutrigenomics can be used to develop quick-fix diet but not in a population level. This is where nutrigenetics should come in. In summary, nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics are two differing fields of modern nutrition and health science with a very large impact on the food and healthcare industry. Nutrigenomics aims to help individuals overcome disorders or disease by identifying key genes, proteins and metabolic pathways and providing appropriate diet or supplements while nutrigenetics tackles the variations in populations related to diet and nutrition dependent disease or disorders. Current researches delve into the specific effects of food and nutrition to the risks and development of known disorders such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, birth defects and many others. Although there have been more work being conducted in nutrigenomics, combination with nutrigenetics is seen to have more beneficial results for patients and other people that are at risk to the said healthcare problems. Works Cited Burton, H. and A. Stewart. (2004). Nutrigenomics. The Nuffield Trust. Available from: www.leatherheadfood.com/nutrigenomics/nutrigenomics07.pdf [18 November 2007] Chen, T., Blum, K., Kaats, G., et al. (2007). Chromium picolinate (CrP) a putative anti-obesity nutrient induces changes in body composition as a function of the Taq1 dopamine D2 receptor polymorphisms in a randomized double-blind placebo controlled study. Gene Ther. Mol. Biol. (11) :161-170. Available from www.dnasoa.com/2006/pdf/cpp.pdf [17 November 2007] Holick, M.F. (2006). High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin. Proc. 81(3). Available from   [17 November 2007] Kaput, J. and R. Rodriguez. (2004). Nutritional genomics: the next frontier in the postgenomic era. Physiol. Genomics (16): 166-177. Available from physiolgenomics.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/16/2/166 [17 November 2007] Kaput, J., Perlina, A., Hatipoglu, B., Bartholomew, A. and Y. Nikolsky. (2007). Nutriggenomics: concepts and applications to pharmacogenomics and clinical medicine. Pharmacogenomics 8 (4). Available from: www.genego.com/PubFTP/PharmacogenomicsKaput.pdf [18 November 2007] Mariman. E..C. (2007). Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics. Research Institute NUTRIM. Maastricht University Department of Human Biology. Available from:   [18 November 2007] Meshkin, B and K. Blum. (2007). Folate nutrigenetics: A convergence of dietary folate metabolism, folic acid supplementation, and folate antagonist   pharmacogenetics. Drug Metabolism Letters. (2): 55-60. Available from: www.bentham.org/dml/samples/dml1-1/Blum.pdf [18 November 2007] Muller M, Kersten S. (2003). Nutrigenomics: goals and strategies. Nat Rev Genet. 4(4):315-22. NIDKK. (2007). Celiac disease. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health. Available from: digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ ddiseases/pubs/celiac/ [18 November 2007] Paturel, A. (2006). Does your diet fit your genes? IDEA Fitness Journal. Available from: www.dswfitness.com/docs/2006IDEANutrition1.pdf [18 November 2007] Subbiah, M.T. (2006). Nutrigenetics and nutraceuticals: the next wave riding on personalized medicine. Translational Research. Available from: www.mdl-labs.com/documents/Nutrigenetics.pdf [18 November 2007] Vanden Heuvel, J.P. (2007). Regulation of gene expression by nuclear receptors: Role in toxicology, chemoprevention and nutrition. Penn State University Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences. Available from  [17 November 2007] Wallace, H. (2006). Your diet tailored to your genes: Preventing diseases or misleading marketing? GeneWatch UK. Available from:[19 November 2007]   

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Once you have read the chapter or assignment, you have to decide how to write about it - Essay Example ives a view regularly ignored, mostly by policy advocates.   Just like any other public policy, the detail is in implementation, and implementation more often seems harder and complex than foreseen by those in favor.   If the likely problems are not foreseen and addressed the will be a mountainous problems in the process of implementation that may derail everything else.   Despite incrementalist theory favoring getting some policy adopted on the assumption that correction will come with time, early failure can impedes legitimacy and work towards blocking future initiatives (Jacobs 2002).   At the same time, measuring the success of any policy against the idealistic and inflated claims of its advocates provides the skeptic a decided and deceptive advantage (Jacobs 2002). My critique is that there are better ways of overcoming the legal and practical problems of enforcement and implementation than those presented by Jacobs. Jacobs looks into the extent of firearm ownership and the deeply rooted position of guns in American culture.   He however incorrectly makes the case that any regulatory control must contend with both the huge existing population of firearms and the entrenched political and social support for individual gun ownership. This is not true because to bring everyone into board is not such an easier thing achieved, you cannot satisfy everyone. Moreover, Jacobs highlighted on both the Second Amendment and federalism as barrier to new regulation.   This chapter presents brought forth a well thought analysis of implementation barriers specific to guns and common to general regulatory policy.   His critique of regulatory implementation concisely notes, â€Å"If a regulatory scheme is not enforced, it loses credibility.†Ã‚   This is something that all implementation advocates should take into their minds. Even though Jacobs did an exemplary job to looking onto implementation challenges he fails to detail the devising solutions.   In the chapter skepticism is

TUFS Value Proposition Essay Example for Free

TUFS Value Proposition Essay The Technical Underwriting Financial System (TUFS) (McKeen Smith, 2012), like any Information Technology (IT) project requires a value assessment. This value assessment is intended to help business leaders weigh the possible benefits and risks associated with the project. In the case of TUFS, some of the anticipated benefits included financial savings through improved efficiency and e-business capabilities. As noted in the case, the company had not made use of the e-business feature two years after it was released. This may point to an IT failure, but it may be as likely that a communication failure among those responsible for defining company strategy produced the unused feature. The anticipated benefits represent expectations, which in this case don’t appear to have been clearly defined by IT or their business counterparts. It may be of more interest in this case to ask how the project fit into the company strategy. One reason this is important is that the expectations (benefits) mentioned are tactical in nature. In other words, improved efficiency and e-business may be good business tactics, but in the absence of a clear strategy, it’s difficult to say how these features would give the company an advantage . External Investment and Commitment IT projects require buy-in from stakeholders. There are several reasons to get buy-in before starting an IT project, some of which include investment during development and commitment to transition away from old processes to the new system upon completion. Unilateral IT projects often lack the level of investment and commitment required for a successful IT project. This becomes even more critical as the scope and size of the project increases. The TUFS project had low stakeholder involvement in the beginning and early stakeholder abandonment when issues arose. In IT projects, there is a risk of going to one of two extremes: analysis paralysis or inadequate requirements planning. In some projects, the analysis phase can reach a point  at which no work is getting done and stakeholders are moving away from consensus rather than toward it. This situation may signal a project that’s poorly aligned with company strategy or even a faulty strategy. For example, a strategy may be to improve the reception of new products by targeting tighter integration between sales and research and development (RD) organizations. In such a scenario it could be plausible to devise an IT project that would synchronize the efforts of sales and RD. However, with two very different groups, salespeople and engineers, consensus may be difficult to reach. In this case, the lack of consensus may be a good sign that either a modified strategy or a different tactical approach would be preferable to pursuing the project. 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As the business grew, so did the systems that enable that business. A significant implication of this is that the current systems in use by a company required many years and significant financial investment to become what they are. Surprisingly, many business people believe that a complete replacement of such a system is possible in a very short period of time. The amount of effort and cost involved in implementing a new system is underestimated. The required changes to existing business processes is underestimated. The amount and duration of required training is underestimated. This tendency to underestimate creates a set of unrealistic expectations, which can product tension between IT and other departments. The result is that many attempts to put a new, monolithic system in place fail. Furthermore, monolithic systems will rarely satisfy the requirements of the broad spectrum of stakeholders who have an interest in its outcome. The human tendency to view desired changes as all or nothing sometimes makes opportunities for incremental replacement of functionality difficult to sell. It is often true that there is a minimum viable product (MVP) required for an initial release of a new IT system. One factor in the success of an IT project is in accurately identifying that MVP and limiting the scope to only essential functionality. After that, continuous improvements are much lower risk and more likely to be prioritized based on actual business needs  and value. One way to approach this is to think in terms of segmented job functions rather than think monolithically. Define the intersection of job functions and allow systems to develop independent of one another with well defined interfaces between them. Role Myopia A common pitfall in IT projects relates to a narrow view of job role. This myopia of roles within a company interferes with communications and subverts accountability. When this occurs, technologists and business participants are at risk of relying on false assumptions about who is qualified and accountable for making key decisions about functionality. Narrow views of roles defeat the synergy that is desired in large projects. On the other hand, when technologists show a willingness to learn other job functions before attempting to create IT solutions for them, the outcome is often more relevant. Similarly, when individuals in key business functions take time to understand the capabilities and limitations of key technologies, the solutions they request are more likely to meet relevant needs. Define Key Success Metrics First A final observation from the case is that the postmortem discussion in which the CFO asked for the metrics that would determine success for future projects should have been discussed before the TUFS project began. A careful identification of pain points and deficiencies up front may even reveal quick and easy solutions that can be applied to existing systems. Even when quick solutions aren’t possible, this is a key step in establishing measurements for the execution of the IT project that will follow. Measurements must be able to quantify losses and gains. References McKeen, J. D., Smith, H. A. (2012). It strategy issues and practices (second ed.). Pearson.

Affective Personality and Primary Emotion Systems

Affective Personality and Primary Emotion Systems Affect is the subjective experiential-feeling component that accompanies bodily stimulation found in physiological aspects such as: the homeostatic drive of hunger and thirst, the external stimulation of taste and touch and the emotional stimulation of environmental events. All are compound central functions of the brain, which are triggered by perceptions, becoming experientially refined. Such affective experiences are typically conceptualized in terms of: valence, such as positive and negative feelings. Arousal; which refers to the intensity of the feeling and also power, concerning the effect of the feeling on the mental state (Panksepp, 2005). There exists a large number of affective states each representing different neuro-dynamics within the brain. Such brain systems operate as an evolutionary adaption situated in subcortical networks and lower brain regions which produce these basic affects, with learning and higher brain functions considered secondary and tertiary processes ( Davis Panksepp, 2011). Such systems are located in ancient brain regions and are predominantly homologous in all mammals. These brain systems generate instinctual behavioural responses that are closely linked to the primitive affects that accompany such activity. (Panksepp, 1998a). Panksepps theory of affective personality (Panksepp, 1998a) suggests that such affective states modulated by these systems when induced by emotional stimuli act as the basis for personality. By employing techniques such as deep (subcortical) electrical stimulation (DBS) and pharmacological manipulation, the construction of six distinct primary emotion systems (SEEK, CARE, PLAY, FEAR, ANGER and SADNESS), anchored in phylogenetically old brain areas, have been developed (Panksepp, 1998a) (Primary emotional systems are printed in capital letters, as a formal designation for primal systems in all mammalian brains and to distinguish them from the vernacular emotional terms traditionally used in emotional and personality research). The affective personality model suggests that Individual differences in these emotional systems promote varying affective states, acting as the basis for individual differences in personality. Each system influences different affective activity which can correspond to a different fundamental personality trait. The six emotional systems are divided into two categories in correspondence to their associated valence. The positive system encompasses SEEK, CARE and PLAY while FEAR, ANGER and SADNESS fall into the negative system. The first of the three positive systems can be classed as SEEK. This precipitates behaviours such as enthusiasm, curiosity and learning. It produces motivation to search for things the organism needs, craves and desires. The system is proposed to correspond with the medial forebrain bundle or the brain reward system. It has been found to be largely driven by dopamine activity following a neural circuit surrounding the ventral-tegmental area of the midbrain and medial frontal cortex (Panksepp, 2010). For instance, it is noted in Trowill, Panksepp, Gandelman (1989) how the manipulation of dopamine activity in medial frontal cortex resulted in the exhibition of coherent emotional responses representing foraging or seeking. Further studies regarding self-stimulation reward have noted a complex neuronal system for appetitive desire which mediates an articulate organismic urge to explore the environment and seek resources in response to bodily needs and external incentives (Ikemoto Panks epp, 1999). The CARE system concerns behaviours such as empathy and nurture and is argued to be more active in females then males because of an evolutionary adaptation to ensure offspring survival. It is proposed to be heavily related to hormone Oxytocin, which is more present in females then males, and has been found to be involved in trust, pair bonding, and generosity (Panksepp, 2010). It is believed to operate around a neural system in the forebrain coursing the hypothalamus, posterior lobe and the nucleus accumbens and may increase affiliative behaviour by dampening amygdala activity (Theodoridou, Rowe, Penton-Voak Rogers, 2009). For example, a study by Kirsch et al (2005) found that the manipulation of oxytocin activity around the posterior lobe increased perceptions of trustworthiness in participants. Furthermore, a fMRI study by Petrovic, Kalso, Petersson Ingvar (2008) found reduced amygdala activity to be related to increased perception of generosity. Finally, the PLAY System refers to feelings of excitement, exploration and the instinctual nature of rough and tumble play demonstrated in human childhood and most young mammals. It is believed to influence learning of social structures, and several social processes such as defeat and social-appetitive motor skills (Panksepp, 1998a). Much like the seek systems it has been found to be linked to stimulation of the ventral tegmental area via dopamine (Panksepp, 2010). Evidence of this can be seen in studies which show the behaviour to survive radical decortication with animals possessing no neocortex still exhibiting play behaviour (Panksepp, Normansell, Cox Siviy, 1994). Furthermore, placing psychostimulants such as amphetamine into the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) can promote stimulation of laughter and feelings of joy (Burgdorf, Knutson, Panksepp, Ikemoto, 2001) and engaging in playful activities also provokes a robust arousal of the same brain area in humans (Mobbs, Greici us, Abdel-Azim, Menon, Reiss, 2003). The first system in the negative grouping is named ANGER which relates to feeling of annoyance, displeasure and hostility and is often aroused when the seeking system is inhibited. The system is related to the activity of the neuropeptide glutamate within a neural network extending from the amygdala and hypothalamus to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) (Located in the tegmentum) (Panksepp, 2010), a region shown to influence defensive behaviour and aggression (Tovote et al, 2016). In a neuroimaging review by Bruehl, Burns, Chung Chont (2009) it was found that opioid dysfunction in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior insula, amygdala, and PAG was related to direct verbal or physical expression of anger. The FEAR system influences behaviours such as alarm and panic when an organism is put in a threatening situation. The system is heavily related to the concept of flight or fight, as activation can lead organisms to flee or elicit a freezing response. It is related to neuropeptide Y and corticotropic activity stimulated by the hypothalamus (Panksepp, 2010). This system was established on the basis of experiments showing that localized DBS within an anterior hypothalamic trajectory could generate coherent fear responses and anxiety (Pankepp, 2005). Furthermore, stimulation of this system at various points along the neuroaxis resulted in animals consistently attempting to escape DBS applied to such brain sites (Panksepp, 1998a). Finally, the SADNESS system includes feelings of grief, unhappiness and regret. Relevant sub-cortical areas of control include the anterior cingulate, the bed-nucleus of the stria terminalis, the ventral septal and dorsal preoptic areas, the dorsomedial thalamus, and the PAG. Such areas have been found to linked to the detection and appraising of social processes as well the expression of negative emotion (Etkin, Egner Kalisch (2012). Some of these areas, most notably the ventral septal and dorsomedial thalamus, are known to control feelings of physical pain with shallow levels of brain stimulation within the PAG still being able to evoke emotional distress (Eisenberger, Lieberman, Williams, 2003). Similarly, it has been reported that social exclusion and depression activates anterior cingulate regions that are known to regulate pain within the human brain (Mayberg, 2004). Moreover, localized electrical stimulation of the stria terminalis can provoke crying (Herman Panksepp, 1981) with neuroimaging imaging studies highlighting similar trajectories of brain activation when experiencing intense sadness (Damasio, Grabowski, Bechara, Damasio, Ponto, Parvizi, 2000). The ANPS On the basis of such evidence for brain affective systems, it can be inferred that a great deal of variation in personality may be related to the strengths and weaknesses found the activity of these systems. This implies that evaluation of personality can be based on empirically relevant indicators along the lines of these brain systems. This precipitated the construction of the affective neuroscience personality scale (ANPS; Davis, Panksepp Normansell, 2003). Modelled after the Spielbergers State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI; Spielberger, 1975) and based on such neurological studies, the ANPS was designed to approximate self-reported feedback concerning the individual differences of these six neural based networks. The ANPS contrast to traditional measures of personality such as questionnaires based on the five-factor model (FFM; Goldberg, 1990) which primarily focus on linguistic representations of personality. As the FFM is based on a lexical (adjective-based) approach it do es not assist in hypothesizing about neural emotional systems underlying the human personality. For example, it has been found that emotional distress is related to stimulation of the PAG (Eisenberger et al, 2003). Therefore, such neural activity can be attributed to participants indicating high levels of distress on the ANPS, whereas reporting emotional distress via a lexical-based personality tool would indicated the presence of linguistic representation rather than hinting at the neural correlates. This can be seen in a study by Montag Reuter (2013) which highlights the use of the ANPS in helping identify the monoamines and neuropeptides involved in the molecular genetic basis of personality. However, the FFM can be argued to be the most influential tool in the measurement of personality, with thousands of studies within the realms of social and cognitive psychology, genetics and psychopathology employing its use Costa McCrae (1995). Therefore, the ANPS should be able to relate to the FFM in terms of the connection between the affective systems and the traditional adjectival descriptive personality dimensions (Extroversion, Introversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness). Research shows a theoretical relationship between the ANPS and the FFM with each of the six ANPS sub-scales reporting a significant correlation with at least one FFM sub-scale. The most robust associations have been reported between Extraversion and PLAY, Openness and SEEK with Agreeableness positively related to CARE and negatively with ANGER Conscientiousness seems to be more weakly related with the three negative emotions. (Davis et al, 2003). Such findings make theoretical sense as many of the behavioural facets defined in each sub-scale relate to corresponding sub-scales in the other model. For example, both the SEEK system and Openness sub-scale include facets relating to curiosity. It is suggested in Davis Panksepp (2011) that the six affective systems form the foundation for substantial parts of the adult five-factor personality structure. For example, that the root of Extraversion, as defined in the FFM, may be the PLAY system. This first emerges as infant smiling, laughter, and sensitivity to tickling, then in later development as childhood games and social interaction and is elaborated in adult personalities as they as joke telling and social engagement. Personality Attachment One area in which the FFM has been greatly utilized, is adult attachment. Adult attachment is a theory designed to explain thoughts, feelings and behaviours in the context of adult relationships. The theory was first developed in Mikulincer Shaver (2003) where it was suggested that close adult relationships mirror the relationship between mother and child, where, for example, a securely attached individual is comforted when their attachments are present and anxious when they are absent. Shaver and Brenner (1992) is one of the earliest examples for the examination of the relationship between attachment and personality. Most studies in the area have focused on the associations between attachment measures and the big five personality traits. Results have generally followed theoretically predictable patterns. Since the publication of Shaver and Brennans (1992) study, several other researchers have reported correlations between a variety of different attachment measures and different mea sures of the Big Five. In general, these studies show attachment security to be moderately-negatively correlated with neuroticism and moderately-positively correlated with extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness. With attachment security rarely showing a correlation with openness (Noftle Shaver, 2006). Such relationships tend to situate around a r = .30 correlation, implying the sub-scales are not simply redundant with each other (Noftle Shaver, 2006). These findings are further developed in studies examining the underlying cognitive and behavioural constructs behind such a relationship. For example, it has been noted how introversion is a form of insecurity in a similar way to insecurity in attachment. An Insecure attachment occurs when a caregiver is unreliable, leading to feelings of vulnerability in the child which relates heavily to the vulnerability and anxiety sub-scales of introversion in the FFM (Thompson, 1999). More recent research has attempted to study this relationship as a possible construct in clinical realms. For example, it has been reported how early traumatization affects brain areas in emotional states which verbal treatment cannot reach, resulting in hindered personality development and attachment malfunction (Ammon, 2010). Personality and attachment profiles have also been found to be important indicators for treatment of drug addiction in patients with children as well as for relapse prevention programmes for sex-offenders (Francescade, 2014, Lu Lung, 2010). Brain imaging studies have also contributed to literature concerning attachment and personality, to a lesser degree. Studies examining the neural correlates of attachment have found several overlapping areas such as the amygdala and the midbrain nuclei to be involved in the activation of the attachment-system (Lenzi et al, 2015) as well as regulation of the SEEK system (Trowill, 1989). This connection is better illustrated in Narvaezs (2017) theory of human biosocial plasticity. It is suggested that the primary caregiver acts as an external psychobiological regulator whose behaviour helps shape the construction of the childs affective neural systems. During prenatal and perinatal life, the maturation of the neocortex is rapidly developing. Under typical developmental conditions, before four months postnatally, the connections between the amygdala and regions mediating motor activity and environmental provocations have not become fully mature (Weber, Watts, Richardson, 2003). From fi ve six months however, reactions to environmental stimuli are patterned clearly. During this development, the relationship between the caregiver and child act as a template for interactions between the self and the social environment. The infant and the caregivers attachment system provides an instrument by which the elementary nervous system of the infant can be co-constructed by the caregiver to help develop psycho-behavioural potentials patterned into the affective emotional systems (Schore, 2001, in Narvaez, 2017). This is further illustrated in a study by Farinelli et al (2015) which found a relationship between affective personality and attachment style in adults. A group of stroke patients with lesions to certain areas of the brain were compared to a group of control patients, in terms of affective personality and attachment style. It was found that those with lesions to midline regions involved in the regulation of the positive emotional system displayed significantly lower levels of SEEK, and higher levels of SADNESS and insecure attachment. Similar results were found in those with lesions to the motor cortex, with the addition of increased levels of ANGER. Dopamine activity surrounding the motor cortex and midbrain regions has been found to play a role in the modulation the ANGER system (Hosp, Pekanovic, Mengia, Rioult-Pedotti Luft, 2011). Neuroimaging studies have also focused on more specific relations between personality and attachment. Most notably, a substantial amount of research has underlined the relationship between the CARE system and the anxiety sub-type of attachment. There exists two sub-types of attachment, attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, which refer to different measures of the construct. There are many different dimensions of attachment such as the traditional: secure, insecure avoidant and insecure anxious constructs (Ainsworth Bowlby, 1991). However, attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance refer to measures of these different dimensions Mikulincer Shaver (2003). Attachment anxiety also referred to as the model of self refers to concepts such as self-awareness and self-consciousness in the context of relationships. This is opposed to attachment avoidance or model of others which refers to ones feelings and cognitions concerning others in the relationship dynamic. Many brain imaging s tudies have focused on the activity of the neuropeptide oxytocin in terms of the CARE system and attachment anxiety. For example, there is neural evidence indicating the importance of oxytocin in helping develop the model of self during the earliest stages of attachment. Insel (2003) highlights the importance of oxytocin for facilitating mother-infant bonding, maternal urges, and solidification of social memories. It has also been found to reduce separation distress and facilitate social bonding from the infants perspective (Nelson Panksepp, 1998). This activity can be seen to relate to similar neural behaviour involved in aspects of the PLAY system, such as empathy and maternal behaviour. For example, the posterior lateral hypothalamus is involved in introspection and self-awareness (Fabbro, Aglioti, Bergamasco, Clarici Panksepp, 2015) as well as maternal behaviour, of which both are modulated by oxytocin administration (Sripada, Phan, Labuschagne, Welsh, Nathan Wood, 2013). Oxy tocin also mediates the activation of the posterior temporal sulcus, which is involved in the mentalizing and processing of self-other distinction (Decety Lamm, 2007) as well as empathy (Paulus, MÃ ¼ller, Jansen, Gazzola, Krach SÃ ¶ren, 2015).

Corruption Among Nations

Corruption Among Nations Agenda Kautilya’s â€Å"Arthashastra† Corruption in Ancient Rome and Athens Why corruption has become a serious problem nowadays?-arguments Variations among nations Definition of Corruption The most wide-spread definition of corruption is the one formulated by the World Bank: the abuse of public power for private gain. Corruption is a complex phenomenon that encloses different types of unfair behavior and not always associated with bribes. For instance, a public employee pretending to be sick goes on vacation thereby abusing his public position for personal benefit; or a president of a country who builds an airport in his small hometown is also engaged in corruption that doesn’t involve the payment of bribes. Throughout history great thinkers and politicians have recognized corruption as a mysterious and complex phenomenon. The complexity of the problem is proved by the fact that corruption in various forms takes place in any sphere of activity; promotes illegality, injustice, waste, inefficiency in administrative conduct; destroys the moral fabric of society, ruins the faith of people in the legitimacy of politico-administrative set up. Besides the fact that corruption encloses unethical business practices through the unfair way to gain advantage over particular good or service, it is a serious problem harming moral values of people. The payment of bribes, nepotism and other forms require lying and dissimilation. It is socially irresponsible, as it discriminates the rights of poor people who are unable to pay bribes for obtaining particular good or service. Corruption has been recognized as a â€Å"general disease for the body politic† to be common as in modern, as in ancient times as well. Indeed, this deviant behavior provoked great concerns of such famous political thinkers as Kautilya, Aristotle, Cicero, Xenophon and others. 1.Corruption in Ancient Athens and Rome Corruption in ancient world is first discovered in an archive listing the names of â€Å"employees accepting bribes† at the administrative centres of the ancient Assyrian empire 3400 years ago. In ancient Greece and Rome very often corrupt behavior was difficult to identify, as the same terms were applied to bribes and gifts (doron, lemma, chresmasi peithein). According to Claire Taylor’s prominent work â€Å"Greece and Rome†, â€Å"every level of Athenian politics was riddled with corruption, from the most important orators to the smallest deme elections†. Political Corruption Both ancient Rome and Athens had large highly developed bureaucracies and at the same time with certain opportunities for abuse. Corruption has been considered to be one of the basic causes of the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. One of the most famous cases of corruption happened in the 1st cen. BC. The Roman governor of Sicily was prosecuted by Cicero for the acts of abuse of power. According to specific historical sources, he bought at first his praetorship and afterwards his governorship. His deviant behavior and misuse of power ruined Sicily, one of the richest provinces at that time that in turn caused Sicilians’ great frustration with the government and the formation of mafia. One of the plots of Verres’s abuse of power was to â€Å"name non-existent slaves†. He used to blame the landowners for hiding slaves suspected in rebellion organization. If the owner couldn’t produce the slave (whom he actually didn’t own), upon Verres’s order the accused was sent to prison and kept there until a bribe was paid for his release. The factors contributing to corruption in ancient times were both of political and legal amateurism. According to the complaint of Plato, public officials are â€Å" bribe-takers and money-lovers.† Despite the fact that the abuse of public power has been always considered a serious crime, the corrupt behaviour of public officials in ancient times may be explained not only on the basis of the love of money but as a professional necessity. The temptation to make private gains was particularly caused by the fact that most magistrates, for instance, in ancient Greece after 411BC were not paid salaries for their service. The members of the Boule may have received small state income (mithos). Because of low-to-nonexistent payments politicians had to care about their considerable expences themselves. Politicians needed money for gathering information for being properly informed; entertain subordinates and pay bailiffs for running their farms while they worked for the state. It is therefore hardly surprising that some public officials accepted bribes and gifts for supplementing their income. However, the result of the misuse of power had a devastating effect on social order that therefore provoked great concern of many famous ancient orators and writers in ancient Rome and Greece. In â€Å"Politics† Aristotle states that â€Å"a tyrant has no regard to public interest except of as conducive to his private ends’ of pleasure†. With regard to public officials, Aristotle considered them to have public duty and private interest is harmed when they use the office for their own â€Å"private ends†. The ideal form of government is the one that governs with the view of common interest. Ancient Athenians were quite sensitive to the misuse of public resources and when detected, the act of corruption was punished severely. In his â€Å"Laws† Plato states that corrupt officials were punished by the loss of citizenship and the right to take part in the political institutions of the city-state. According to the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384-322 BC), a person who†¦ â€Å"†¦ accepts a bribe from another or himself offers it to another, or corrupts anyone by promises, to the detriment of the people in general, or if any individual citizen, by any means or device, whatsoever, he shall be disfranchised together with his children, and his property will be confiscated.† In fact, Demosthenes himself was found guilty of accepting bribes. In 324 BC he was fined 50 talents that equals $20 million in today’s dollars. He turned out to be comparatively lucky when he went into exile, while other Athenian officials were frequently severely executed for bribery. According to the Law of the Twelve Tables that formed the centerpiece of the Roman Republic constitution, there was imposed a death penalty on the judges who accepted bribes. The punishment was eased after the rise of the Roman empire (27 BC–476 AD). Electoral Corruption As a paragon of civilization, Rome represented a major centre where corruption took place. Following the Greek historian Polybius (200-118 BC), â€Å"to the Romans nothing is more disgraceful than to receive bribes or to seek gain by improper means.† This estimation sounds quite optimistic, however in reality, compared to Athens, electoral bribery (ambitus) was a much more serious problem in ancient Rome. For instance, Julius Caesar won the office of Pontifex Maximus through bribery. Electoral bribery turned into such a common event that it gave rise to the profession of bribe distributors called divisores. In this case, Cicero proposed the establishment of particular laws for electoral corruption prevention: limit the amount political elites could spend on gifts and entertainment aimed to influence election results. Extortion and embezzlement Reports on extortion in ancient history are very frequent. For instance, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus(163 BC – 89 BC) aRoman consul was accused of extortions while being a governor of Sardinia and Corsica. Army was not the exception. The representative of the Sophist school Libanius (341-392 AD) in his speech proposed the emperor Theodosius to enforce laws against soldiers who used to extort money from the inhabitants of the colonies and then in turn applied the acquitted amount in military protection to oppress neighbours. In Luke 3 John the Baptist exhort the tax-collectors â€Å"to collect no more that is appointed to you†. With regard to Roman army, he instructs the soldiers â€Å"to be content with the wages† and give up extorting money from civilians by violence. Bribe or gift? â€Å"It was quite impossible to get anything done unless one produced a present. Politicians could be paid to do anything or nothing†. Thycydides (460 – c. 395 BC) Bribes performed a significant role in the everyday life both in ancient Rome and Athens. Bribes could decide the matters of war and peace, movement of armies, destruction and the fate of the whole nations as well. There were even formed particular associations for extortion. The long-term consequences of bribery became particularly noticeable in the sixties and fifties BC. Bribery caused financial and correspondingly political instability; as well as loss of faith in constitution and rule of law. This outcome is considered to have contributed to the civil war. The distinction between bribe and gift was quite unstable. In ancient Rome the notion of â€Å"gratia† meant the expression of gratitude. It represented particular gifts, donations and hospitality provided to a socially dominant person by a client. In ancient Greece the same role was attributed to gift called â€Å"dora† that at the same time meant bribe. The term â€Å"dorokein† meant receiving bribes, while â€Å"dorokia† stood for political corruption. If there was made no distinction between gifts and bribes, it therefore points to the estimation that the provision of bribes was a part of social behavior and expression of solidarity and gratitude. 2. Kautilya’s Arthashastra The temptation to make private gains has always existed and unfortunately can’t be totally eliminated. However, the level of corruption can be monitored with particular anti-corrupt tools that may sometimes move economy closer to the level of complete transparency. Corruption should be examined first of all as an essential feature of a changeable human nature. â€Å"Men are naturally fickle minded and are compared to horses who exhibit constant change in their temper†. Kautilya (370-283 BC) One of the most prominent political figures of ancient times, the professor of economics and political sciences at the ancient Takshashila University and the royal advisor, Kautilya (Chanakya or Vishnu Gupta), also examined corruption as a major threat to economics and social order. Kautilya played a significant role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire, the first empire in the archeologically recorded history for the ruling of the most Indian subcontinent. Being a chief advisor to both Chandragupta (340-298 BC) and Bindusara (320-272 BC), he dealt with the issues on politics, social order, diplomacy, war and ethics. The widespread character of corruption at various levels of the Kingdom’s administration prompted Kautilya to establish an elaborated statecraft â€Å"Arthashastra† that describes what a state ought to be and not what it really was. One should agree that the norms of how to handle the problem are prescribed when particular disorder and abnormalities ex ist.†Arthashastra†, being considered as an elaborated statecraft that discusses monetary and fiscal policies, the art of international relations and war strategies, encloses valuable advice on how to handle and fight against corruption. According to Kautilya, honesty is not the virtue that would remain consistent lifelong and the temptation to make easy gains through corrupt means can override the trait of honesty any time. The identification of corruption with the notion of temptation is clearly proved by the comparison of the revenue collection process (by officials) with the honey or poison on the tip of the tongue that is impossible not to taste. As nowadays, as in ancient times corruption is so obvious and yet so mysterious. Kautilya expressed great concern on the difficulty of the detection of corruption. He compared embezzlers to fish moving under water and the impossibility to detect when exactly the fish was drinking water. Corruption in public sector and the tools to fight against it Kautilya stated that the increase in expenditures and lower revenue is an indicator of embezzlement and extortion in the government. Being an ancient statecraft, â€Å"Arthashastra† represents elaborated guidelines that may be applied in dealing with corruption even nowadays. Kautilya considered corruption, first of all, as a phenomenon deriving from a changeable human nature. On the basis of this assessment, the process of fighting against corruption must begin from the employee recruitment level. Employee recruitment In Mauryan Empire (322-185BC) â€Å"superintendents† were the highest officials, who received their position on the basis of â€Å"ministerial qualifications†, as well as â€Å"individual capacity†. Educational background, work experience and particular skills gave particular advantage to a candidate during the selection process. However, no less attention was paid to the right kind of aptitude for the position: traits of honesty and the level of impartiality. Despite such thorough selection process, corrupt persons still made their way into the system; however, other efficient tools were applied for the detection and prevention of corruption. Relations among co-workers Kautilya considered efficient team work to be the key for success. There were, however, particular impediments, like too much personal interactions among the higher executives, and co-workers that led to compromise and consequently corruption. Kautilya explained that human emotions and personal concerns impeded the successful running of an administration that is, first of all, a rule-based impersonal affair. Besides, different vision of particular issues also harmed the team spirit. Kautilya suggested stimulation of professionalism at work: superintendents must execute work with the employees following subordination system. Kautilya was certain that such model would stimulate the sense of belonging of employees to particular department, clearly identify their rights and obligations and therefore contribute to success of the state. Work period shortening Another measure for corruption prevention was the suggestion to make several positions in each department temporary. Periodic transfer of government officials from one position to another was implemented with the intention of not giving enough time for the officials to pick holes in the system and misuse their advantages. Whistleblowers’ contribution Whistle blowing has remained one of the most efficient tools in corruption detection process. Kautilya made particular emphasis on the importance of informants’ (suchaka) activity for exposing embezzlement or some deviant behavior. If the whistleblower was a government servant, he was given one twelfth of the bribe or the extorted amount. While, if the informant was from outside the system, he was entitled the award of one-sixth of the amount. The latter’s share was more, as the detection of corruption while being outside the system was rather more challenging. Corruption Nowadays The â€Å"Arthashstra† of Kautilya convincingly confirms the fact that corruption is not the exclusive feature of contemporary world. It represents a piece of prehistoric heritage that has survived through centuries. Governments of all historical eras have recognized the devastating effect of this phenomenon on the political system, security and social order. Globalization has stimulated the spread of corruption all over the globe. As a result, nowadays corruption is a world-scale problem that in return is recognized as a major threat to internationals security. However, before discussing the central point of the research, it is necessary to understand why corruption is paid so much attention now? Is it because there was more corruption in the past than in the present? Is it because more attention is paid to the phenomenon that has existed for ages but has been partially or completely ignored? The answer is still not obvious; however there are several arguments that describe w hy corruption is attracting more attention now than in the past. First, the end of the Cold War stopped the political hypocrisy giving the opportunity to many decision makers in industrial countries to ignore political corruption, e.g. Zaire. Second, the lack of information and the ignorance of the abuse of power didn’t give the possibility for corruption detection in centrally-planned economy. It is now widely known that the central planned economies, such as the USSR or those imitating them experienced high rate of political corruption. However, the cases of deviant behavior and the abuse of public power was either ignored or not properly reported. Third, the emergence of new democratic governments in recent years, as well as free and active media have contributed to the creation of a new environment where discussion of corruption is no longer forbidden. Forth, the process of globalization has stimulated closer and frequent contacts between individuals from different countries: those from the countries with the high rate of transparency with those from the countries where corruption widespread. These contacts have increased the attention towards corruption. Fifth, the emergences of nongovernmental organizations, such as Transparency International, as well as a growing interest in the problem from the side of other international organizations have contributed to the anti-corrupt movements in many countries. Besides, numerous empirical studies have contributed to greater awareness of the problem. Sixth, market economy has created an environment where the pursuit of efficiency has become much more important and distortions caused by corruption attract more attention. Finally, the influence of the US in many international institutions has been very important. American policy makers have stated that American exporters have lost out in foreign trade due to the prohibition to pay bribes to foreign trade partners. For American officials, the payment of bribes is a criminal act and bribes can’t be deducted as cost for tax purposes. The case of OECD was quite different from the US’s model of behavior. However, under the sponsorship of the OECD situation has noticeably changed.